OLFACTORY COMMUNICATION

 The Importance of Olfaction in Communication

Olfaction, the sense of smell, is the most acute of the wolf's and dog's senses. Wolves and dogs, unlike humans, are strongly reliant on odors to aquire information about the outside world...about food or danger, and to communicate with other wolves.
 Unlike vocal signals, that indicate state of an individual's changing mood and possible future actions over the next few seconds or minutes, the odor provide a deeper and broader window into the animal's history, present status, and future prospects over much longer time frame.
For example, while a female's urine may inform a male that she is psychiologically ready to mate and concieve, her voice may inform him that now is not the time.

Odors contain information on species or individual identity, gender, breeding condition, social status, emotional state, age, condition and even a diet.



Skin Glands

The secretions of the wolf's or dog's skin glands not only keep the skin supple and hydrated, but also function in chemical communication. There are three types of secretory skin glands.

a) Sebaceous Glands
Found in hair follicles. They produce an oily, waxy substance, which when acted on by bacteria, emits distinct odor. In dogs, large sebaceous glands are found along the part of the neck, back and tail, especially in the tail gland area. However, those present at the junction of the skin and mucous membranes of the lips, vulva, and eyelids are even larger. If you live with more than one dog, you may often notice, that your dog's sniff, or sometimes even licking, each others at the above mentioned areas. Commonly, you will see this behaviour from the most dominant dog within your family pack.

b) Apocrine Sweat Glands
Found in the skin of dogs. They are most numerous on the face, lips, and back and between the toes. Apocrine glands become active at puberty. Their watery secretion is not used for cooling.

c) Eccrine Glands
They are the true sweat glands that function primarily for cooling. In dogs they are located only on the footpads. Their secretion is influenced by excercise or heat stress, but can be also stimulated by the nervous system. Individual differences in microflora and in diet result in the functional equivalent of "chemical fingerprints". Thus, wolves can recognize one another by distinctive " odor fingerprints", dogs can not only identify individual humans by odor, but can distinguish between identical twins that are eating different diets.


Feet
Appocrine sweat glands are present in the "webs" of the paws, in the form of small glandural pockets near the bases of the toes of dogs. Eccrine sweat glands, are numerous in the footpads. The offten seen stiff- legged scratching of the ground after a defecation, and in some individuals after or before urine marking, lay down an aditional scent mark from the paws. This behaviour is presented by dominant male dogs, or by the alpha breeding pair of wolves. So next time you see your dog doing so, it means he's laying down additional scent mark, and not cleaning his feet, as many people believe.

Marking with back feet

Paws sweat glands

Back and Tail
Little attention has been paid to the skin on the backs of canids in terms of signal value. Wolves, for example, have contrasting colour marking across the shoulders, and the relatively longer guard hairs covering that area are raised during periods of arousal. Also called "hackles", these raised hairs convey an obvious visual signal that can be seen also in domestic dogs, and can be recognized even by humans. The passive release of scent from the raised hair, during which the skin folds spread, might also play important role in communication.
Clusters of sebaceous glands, together with apocrine galnds, make up a dorsal tail gland found on the top surface of the tail near to its base. Wolves nor dogs don't typically investigate this area on one another, some might rubb the secretion on their dens, kennels or crates.

Raised hackles

Ears 
Male dogs show little interest in the ear wax samples of other males, but investigate the ears of females. These results suggest, that the information in the ear wax samples is related to gender. Many times, you will also find dogs showing interest in smelling human ears.

To be continued.....

DEVELOPMENT OF VOCAL COMMUNICATION

  From birth on, both wolves and dogs are very vocal. Newborn pups moan, squel, and scream as they wiggle around and compete for the mother's nipples.

Early Vocal Signals
( Squeal / Scream / Yelp / Yawn ) 

Pups squeal and scream during their first few weeks of life, but rarely by 5-6 weeks of age. These sounds are short, harmonic, and high-pitched. Screams are generally higher-pitched, much louder and less frequent. Squeals are not associated with any particular pup or adult behaviour, and adults appear to ignore them. When pups scream, their mother grooms them or repositions them, often eliciting more screams. Scream serve as a mild distress calls.
Pups yelp when stepped on or being carried, and their mother responds promtly by attending to them.Yelps are rare, brief, loud sounds.
Yawns are sounds produced during yawning and have no apparent social role.

Early Adultlike Vocal Sounds
 ( Moan / Whine / Growl / Bark )

Moans are most common pup sound.Moans, like squeals, screams, and whines are most common during first two weeks of life when pups are deaf. Pups moan while nursing, asleep, or resting; their moans do not elicit any overt response response from the mother. Pups also moan when huddled together, providing a possible tactile signal to the littermates. 
Pups also whine from birth on. Whines are higher-pitched than moans. Pups whine and moan in the same contexts, so the two vocalizations may carry similar information.
Pups growl as early as a day, but not frequently until their fourth week. During the first 3 weeks, pups may growl when huddled. Older pups growl during active interactions with litermates. Pups also bark in response to sounds outside.



Late Adultlike Vocal Signals
( Woof / Squeak ) 

Pups woof from their third week on, most often during their mother's absence. Woofs are associated with both hesitancy, and aproach and reflect uncertainty. 
Pups do not squeak until day 15, by by the week 4, squeaks become the most common sound in the pups repertoire.  
In weeks 3 and 4, pups squeak while in contact with one another but not interacting. During the next 2 weeks, they squeak mostly during interactions with littermates or with their mother. 

The Neonatal Vocal Repertoire 

The vocal repertoire of newborn pups begins to give way to an adult - structured repertoire shortly after the pups can see, hear and move about. Four most common sounds of newborns ( moans, whines, squeals, screams ) are made repeatedly during first 2 weeks of life, then decline rapidly or disappear entirely. Together with the yelp, these four sounds provide a stepped series that permits the mother to monitor the status of her litter. The decline of these early sounds indicate that pups rapidly outgrow the need for distress signal system. By 3-4 weeks of age, pups can avoid situations that may have been life - threatening earlier. Loss of squeals and screams still leaves moans, yelps and whines to indicate low, moderate or high level of distress. 
At 1-3 weeks, before the development of social behaviour, pup signals primaly serve to indicate distress. After 3 weeks of age, these vocal signals assume their adultlike roles. These are mainly used by wolves in a form of howls. 

VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Visual communication in wolves (Canis Lupus) and in their descendants our domestic dogs ( Canis Lupus Familiaris).

Visual communication is as important to wolves and dogs as the olfactory communication. Visual signals consist of simultaneous movement of most body parts from nose to tail. It is believed, that features of the face (ears, eyes, lips, teeth, nose, and forehead), the body (posture, hair), and the tail are important components of visual signals, while facial and body coloration often enhance a signal's value. Variation in each element express variation in underlying motivation along a continuum from aggressive/confident to submissive/anxious.

Aggressive or self-assertive individuals are characterized by a high body posture, enhanced by raised hackles and general piloerection along the back and the tail. The legs are held stiffly, and movements are slow and deliberate. The dominance signals reflect the wolf's or dog's readiness to attack, with other visual elements enhancing its size and fully displaying its teeth (this feature is more seen in wolves).

Submissive and fearful individuals carry their body low, sleek the fur, and lower the ears and tail. Postures indicating submission or fear represent preparations for defence or flight, with visual features reducing the animal's apparent size and hiding its teeth.

The tail is the most dynamic of the visual elements. It may increase an individual's apparent size, and may also give it a mechanical advantage in the event of a fight. In addition, elevating the tail exposes the anal region, wagging of the tail conveys friendliness, and submissive individuals may enhance this signal by moving the hindquarters as well; slow, stiff movements of the tail or tip indicate an aroused state that might lead to attack.

Expressive characteristics of visual features used during social interaction in wolves and dogs

Aggressive dominat individuals

Eyes......open wide, direct stare
Ears.......erect and forward
Lips........horizontal contraction
Mouth....opened (in wolves)
Teeth......canines bared (in wolves)
Tongue...retracted
Nose......shortened (skin folded)
Forehead...contracted (bulging over eyes)
Head.........held high
Neck........arched
Hair..........erect (bristled)
Body........erect/tall
Tail..........held high, quivering, curling over the back (in dogs)

Submissive fearful individuals

Eyes..........closed to slits, looking away
Ears...........flattened and turned down to side
Lips..........horizontal retraction
Mouth......closed
Teeth.......canines covered
Tongue....extended (lick intention)
Nose......lenghtened (skin smoothed)
Forehead...stretched (smoothed)
Head.........lowered
Neck........extended
Hair..........sleeked
Body........crouched / low
Tail..........wagging, tucked under body

Tail postures

a) Self - assertion during social interactions

b) assertive threat

c) intimidation (with lateral wagging)

d) normal position during conditions without social tension

e) not quite certain threat

f) normal position  especially while eating or watching others

 
g) depressed mood

h) between threat and defense

i) active submission (with lateral wagging)

(j) and (k) strong inhibition

Wolf pack use three distinct postural attitudes during social intereaction. High, neutral and low. Similar behaviour can be seen in dogs living in a group. The high and low postures are based on opposite expressions of the head, ears, tail, and legs, folowing the above description. Of their twenty-one behavioral measures, high and low postures are among the few that reveal the rank relationship among the packmates. Within a pack, being able to read another packmate's signals benefits both individuals, confirming a previously established relationship without the need for recurring conflict. In the case of our domestic dogs, we can benefit in the same way, by being able to read our dog's signals given away during outside socialization with strange dogs.

To be continued.....

SOCIAL AND COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOUR IN DOGS

Communication

Effective communication is essential for the formation and maintance of social relationships. Dogs same as wolves have three main methods of communication: auditory, visual and olfactory.

Auditory communication

Auditory communication may be employed over a range of distances and is particulary useful when vision is impaired, for example in thick vegetation. Range of signals given by wolves have also been recorded in domestic dogs. They include diverse range of sounds from grunts, whines, yelps and screams to tooth snapping, coughing, growling, and of course barking.

Methods of auditory communication used by domestic dogs

Sound                                                                       Behaviour
Bark                                                                         Defense
                                                                                Play
                                                                                Greeting
                                                                                Lone call
                                                                                Call for attention
                                                                                Warning

Grunt                                                                        Greeting
                                                                                 Sign of contentment

Growl                                                                        Defense warning
                                                                                 Threat signal
                                                                                 Play

Whimper / Whine                                                      Submission
                                                                                 Defence
                                                                                 Greeting
                                                                                 Pain
                                                                                 Attention seeking


Effective communication with sound requires an auditory system that can both recieve and decode sound signals. Dogs have relatively ordinary hearing abilities compared with other mamals. Their sensitivity at low frequencies is generally similar that that of cats and humans. At higher pitches, dogs become increasingly more sensitive than humans. The upper frequency limit of hearing in four dogs did not vary with their size, indicating that high-frequency sensitivity may be a species typical characteristic.

K-9 FIRST AID

This information is only a guide for giving first aid to a dog.
It is not intended to replace veterinary care, but to
give FIRST AID until you can get professional help.
____________________

SKELETON OF DOG

NORMAL VALUES FOR YOUR DOG

Capillary refill time	less than 1 second
Mucous membrane color	generally pink
Temperature	101 to 102 degrees F
Pulse rate at rest	young dogs 110 - 120 bpm large breed adult 60-80 bpm small breed adult 80 - 120 bpm
Respiratory rate	young 20 - 25 adult 14 - 16
Hydration	pick up skin and release, it should return within 1 second

Capillary refill time is measured by pressing on the gums over the canine tooth. Using one finger, press down firmly until the gums turn white under your finger and release. You are looking for the time it took for the color to return. Also, note the color of your dogs gums and mouth. Dogs gum colour can vary from black, pink, reddish brown or any combination of colors.

Temperature is taken rectally with an adult rectal thermometer. You should hold it in place for 1 to 2 minutes. If you get a temperature of less than 100 degrees F, re-take the temperature to make sure the thermometer was in place long enough.

The pulse rate and respiration rate will vary from dog to dog, and will also vary if the dog is at rest or working. So, it is a good idea to get normal values for both.

RECOGNIZING SIGNS OF SHOCK

Shock is a condition resulting from a depressed state of many vital body functions, caused by a lack of effective circulation. It is a life threatening condition that is reversible if treated in time. Some causes of shock are; severe loss of blood, burns, trauma, snake bites, poison, lack of oxygen, or prolonged vomiting with diarrhea.

Symptoms of shock include:

·         Pale color in gums / inside eyelids, capillary refill time greater than 2 seconds.

·         Dry lips and gums, dehydration.

·         Excessive drooling in some poison cases.

·         Weak femoral pulse, rapid 150 to 200 beats per minute.

·         Rapid heart rate.

·         Cool Extremities.

·         Hyperventilation, rapid breathing generally over 25 breaths per minute.

·         Confusion, restless, anxiousness.

·         General weakness.

Advanced stages of shock:

·         Continued depression and weakness to the point of not being able to move or becoming unresponsive or unconscious.

·         Dilated pupils.

·         Capillary refill time greater than 4 seconds.

·         White mucous membranes.

·         Body temperature below 98 degrees F, taken rectally.

Treatment

ABC's
Insure adequate ventilation.
Control any bleeding.
Keep dog quiet and calm to prevent further injury.
Keep body temperature normal.
Get dog to veterinarian so fluid replacement and medication can be started.

An injured dog or an animal in shock may not recognize you. Your own dog may bite you out of pain or fear. It is very important to talk to the dog in very soft and reassuring tones. If the dog is having trouble breathing or panting heavily do not put a muzzle on it. If a muzzle is placed on the dog it must be monitored at all times and removed at the first sign of overheating or vomiting. Get help, if possible from someone who can help hold the dog, so you can do an examination and/or treat the dog.

WOUNDS AND BLEEDING

Abrasions

o    Usually minor.

o    Some bleeding.

o    Always a possibility of infection.

Treatment

Carefully remove foreign objects and debris.
May have to cut or clip hair away from area.
Clean wound liberally with water and chlorhexidine or Betadine scrubs or solutions if available. If not, any soap will be beneficial. Solution does not have to be rinsed, scrub must be rinsed copiously. (Avoid using hydrogen peroxide. It can damage tissue.)

Major lacerations and bleeding

o    Can be life threatening.

o    May need to be sutured by a vet.

Treatment

Control bleeding.	1. Additional direct pressure 2. Elevation 3. Pressure points
Get professional help right away. Also see the above treatment for laceration

Bandaging principles

• Protect wound from further injury or infection.
• Discourage licking.
• Restrict movement.
• Secure splint.
• Prevent weight bearing.
• Provide compression to control bleeding and edema.
• Verify circulation is maintained to toes, make sure to cushion pads.

FRACTURES AND SUSPECTED FRACTURES

Signs and Symptoms

o    Obvious pain

o    Loss of use of the limb

o    Protruding bone

o    Swelling

o    Irregularity or deformity

o    Limping

Treatment

Remember, shock and bleeding should be controlled first.
Treat dislocation as fracture.
Do not push bone back through skin.
Cover an open fracture with clean dressing.
Limb fracture below elbow or knee apply a Robert Jones bandage from toes to shoulder or hip.
Unfortunately, there is no agreed upon or standard for first aid for a fracture of the humerus or femur.
Transport to appropriate facilities ASAP.

Splinting principles

·         Immobilization of fracture or suspected fracture. (This requires immobilization of both the joint above and the joint below the fracture.)

·         Decrease pain.

·         Prevent shock.

·         Prevent further injury to surrounding tissue.

·         Provide compression to control bleeding and edema.

EMERGENCY AND TRAUMA

SNAKE BITES

Signs/Symptoms

o    Pain

o    Lethargy

o    Vomiting

o    Diarrhea

o    Salivation, thirsty

o    Swelling at the area of the bite

o    Shock

Treatment

Seek immediate veterinary care. While transporting, immobilize the part of the animal that has been bitten, keeping below the heart level. A constricting band may be used, with caution, to impede the spread of the venom. Keep the animal calm and confined during the transport. If you can identify the snake species, it may be helpful in treatment.

STINGS

Signs/Symptoms

o    Pain

o    Swelling and redness

o    Pawing at face

o    Snapping in the air

Treatment

If you see the stinger, get it out. Cool compression will help alleviate the sting. Give oral benedryl (diphenhydramine 2-4mg/kg orally every 8 hours). Seek medical attention if swelling persists/gets worse or if the sting is near the head/neck/throat area.

HEAT EXHAUSTION

Signs/Symptoms

o    Fatigue

o    Circulatory collapse

o    Red mucous membrane (gums)

o    Excessive panting

o    Dehydration

o    Shaking

Treatment

Seek shade, rest the dog, offer small amounts of water. Seek veterinary care if condition does not improve.

HEAT STROKE

Signs/Symptoms

o    Excessive panting

o    Rectal temperature above 105-106 degrees F

o    Disorientation

o    Weakness

o    Rapid pulse/breathing

o    Brick red mucous membranes

Treatment

Get the dog into shade, into a creek if available. Use same precautions as with human, don't use ice water bath. Slowly cool down the body temperature, immerse in a cool water bath. Ice can be placed, with caution, under armpits, head, neck, and groin area, being sure to wrap in cloth first. Monitor temperature, avoiding cooling too much. Transport to veterinary hospital.

BLOAT

Bloat is the common terminology for Gastric Dilatation/Torsion. This is most common in larger - deep chested dogs. Gastric dilatation is the enlargement of the stomach beyond its normal dimensions. Gastric dilatation volvulus is when the stomach actually rotates on itself. This is a life threatening situation.

Signs/Symptoms

o    Dry retching/unproductive vomit

o    Restlessness

o    Anxiousness

o    Distended abdomen (hardened)

o    Drooling excessively

o    Depression

o    Shock

Treatment

Take to the veterinary hospital immediately.
To monitor the bloat you can take a measuring tape (webbing or leash could work) and measure the distance around the dog, just caudal (past) the last rib. Monitor and make sure it is not enlarging, mark it with a pen to keep accurate.

Prevention

Feed your dog his/her ration of food in, at least, two feedings a day (am/pm). Avoid giving lots of water at once, offer water more frequently. Avoid exercise approximately 1-2 hours before and after feeding.

POISON

Signs/Symptoms

o    Breathing difficulty

o    Unusual actions

o    Digestive upset

o    Irregular heart, rapid, or weak

o    Shivering

o    Convulsions

o    Salivation

There are many different types of poisoning, each will affect your dog differently. Many do not produce immediate symptoms. Find out what your local poison control number is and call them. Keep 1-800-548-2423 with you. Do not make the dog vomit if it is a caustic poison or you do not know what kind of poison the dog has consumed. Consult poison control or a veterinarian for further instructions.

Types of poisons and a brief reaction description are:

·         Anti Coagulant Rodenticides
Warfarin

These rodenticides will cause the dog's blood to stop clotting in hours or a day. This does not show immediate signs like other poisons. Make your dog vomit, further veterinary care is necessary for survival. Seek immediate veterinary care bringing the box of poison with you.

·         Other Rodenticides
ANTU
Thallium
Pindone
Strychnine
Sodium Floro-acetate (1080)
Zinc Phosphide

May cause fatal pulmonary edema, seizures, liver or kidney destruction, or severe hemorrhagic gastroenteritis. If the dog is conscious, induce vomiting, give Toxiban, collect the product label, and transport to the veterinarian.

·         Pesticides
Arsenic
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Organophosphates
Carbonates
Rotenone
Metaldehyde

The signs are more immediate for most of these. General profuse salivation, stomach pain and cramps, labored breathing, bluish mucous membranes, seizures/convulsions, rigidity, extended legs and many other signs. IMMEDIATELY SEEK VETERINARY CARE.

·         Glycol's
Antifreeze

Signs may not be readily apparent. The dog may actually appear a bit "drunken". The fatal effect of ethylene glycol occurs hours later and is irreversible at that point. Immediately rinse the dogs mouth, feet and any other points of contact. Induce vomiting if conscious and give Toxiban. Transport immediately to veterinarian.

·         Miscellaneous poisons
Acid
Alkalies
Garbage
Toxic plants
Chocolate
Acid - Clean off what you can see, do not induce vomiting, transport to vet.
Alkalies - Clean off what you can see, do not induce vomiting, transport to vet.
Garbage - Remove what you can, induce vomiting, give activated charcoal....do not give lomotil.
Toxic plants - Take a sample of the suspected plant to a local veterinarian.
Chocolate - If more than 1 oz/kg of baking chocolate is consumed, or 2 oz/kg of semi-sweet chocolate, or 4 oz/kg of Milk chocolate, induce vomiting, give activated charcoal and transport to vet. (note, the fat content of some milk chocolate products can cause life threatening pancreatitis).

CPR AND RESCUE BREATHING

Airways

The first priority is to establish an unobstructed airway. Open airways by extending head and neck. Check and remove any foreign materials from the mouth and pull the tongue forward.

Breathing

Look and listen for signs of breathing. If none, place your hands around the muzzle to prevent air from escaping and breathe forcefully into the nostrils. The chest should expand and fall if you are getting air into the lungs. Do not be too forceful with small animals. Rescue breathing should be given at a rate of 8 to 10 breaths per minute (or one breath every 6 seconds).

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)

If there is no pulse, place the dog on a hard surface with its right side down. Use the heel of your hand to compress the chest on the lower side immediately behind the elbow. The compression should be firm and not a sudden blow. It helps to have 2 people; the first gives the cardiac massage, the second does the breathing. CPR should be given at a rate of 80 to 120 compressions per minute with two ventilations being given every 15 compressions of the chest.

Drugs & Electrical Manipulation

Drugs and electrical manipulation can only be done by a veterinarian. For the best chance to save your dog, get to a veterinarian as quickly as possible! Even if you revive your dog by doing rescue breathing or CPR, take your dog to a vet for a complete exam.

FIELD FIRST AID KIT

This is a list of equipment and supplies that you will want to carry in your field first aid kit. The * indicates things that you will need to obtain from a veterinarian. It's a good idea to talk to your veterinarian and let him know the kind of work you do with your dog. Remember you want to keep your field pack as small and light as possible. Carry only the things that you will need for an emergency. Your car or flight pack is a good place to carry bulky first aid supplies like extra tape, bandages, and roll cotton.

tweezer
hemostat / forceps
scissors / emergency shears
thermometer
safety pins
3" x 3" gauze sponges
Ace elastic bandage
triangular bandage
Band-Aids
2" roll gauze / Conform stretch bandage
Sam splint
1" adhesive tape
exam gloves
non-adhering dressing / Telfa / Release
2" roll Medi-Rip / Vetwrap
Betadine solution
Sting ease
Aspirin
K-Y jelly
Benadryl (2-4mg/kg)

* Antibiotics (Ampicillin / Tetracycline)
* Topical ointments (Panalog / Tritop / Neomycin / Neosporin)
* Ophthalmic Ointment without steroid (Mycitracin / Terramycin)
* Steroid (Prednisolone)
* Anti-diarrhea medication
* Emetic, to cause the dog to vomit (Apomorphine)

The items in parentheses are only a suggestion. Your Veterinarian may have you use other drugs or products.

EMERGENCY PRE-PLAN FOR WORKING SEARCH DOGS

Meet With Your Veterinarian

Talk to your veterinarian to see if he/she would be available to assist in an emergency after hours or on weekends. It's important to let them know the type of work you do with your dog. In the event of an emergency it might be hours or even a day before you can get your dog to professional help.

Discuss with your veterinarian how they would like you to handle emergencies such as: hyperthermia, allergic reactions, snake bites, lacerations, fractures, diarrhea/vomiting and poisoning before you get your dog to them or the closest vet. Go over the first aid kit and medication ideas. Are they willing to provide you with some basic drugs and instructions on how to use them in an emergency? The list of medications is only a suggestion, each veterinarian will have medications they prefer to use. Don't make a First Aid kit with things you don't know how to use or what they are for.

If your dog has been injured or treated for an emergency in the field it is important to call your vet and update him upon your return. Your vet may recommend a follow up exam and further treatments or just appreciate being updated.

Field First Aid Kit

This kit will always be taken with you when you go out in the field. A field first aid kit is a small to minimum sized kit and only contains things to treat emergencies in the field. The medications and supplies don't last forever. Make sure all medications have expiration dates on them. Keep tape in a plastic bag to avoid its drying out. The most important thing to remember is that when you use up supplies in your first aid kit you replace them ASAP.

Car First Aid Kit

Make a larger kit to keep in your car that contains more supplies like dressings, bulky bandaging supplies, splints, stethoscope, sterile water etc.

Medical Records and Vaccination Certificates

Ask your veterinarian for a copy of your dogs records and certificates for vaccinations. They are very important to have if your dog is being treated for any condition or has any medical problems. You should carry a copy of your dogs current vaccinations.

K-9 EXAM PRACTICE

Because normal values vary from dog to dog, this will be a reference of what is normal for your dog. Please print and complete and put in your First Aid Kit for reference.

GLOSSARY OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMS USED IN VETERINARY MEDICINE

BP	blood pressure	BID	twice daily
CRT	capillary refill time	DX	diagnosis
EOD	every other day	FX	fracture
HBC	hit by car	IM	intramuscular
IV	intravenous	LRS	lactated ringers solution
NSF	no significant findings	PCV	packed cell volume
PRN	as necessary	QD	once daily
QOD	every other day	RBC	red blood cell
RX	prescription	SID	temperature, pulse, respiration
TX	treatment	WBC	white blood cell

Alopecia - hair loss
Ataxia - lack of coordination
Capillary - tiny blood vessels connecting arteries with veins
Distal - away from the center
Dorsal - back, posterior
Dyspnea - difficult or labored breathing
Edema - large amounts of fluid in subcutaneous tissues
Emesis - vomit
Gastroenteritis - inflammation of the stomach and intestine
Hematoma - a blood filled swelling
Hydration - to combine with water
Hyperventilation - rapid or deep breathing that over oxygenates the blood causing dizziness
Jaundice - yellowing of the skin
Lateral - side away from the center
Luxation - dislocation
Otic - relating to the ear
Pancreat - pertaining to the pancreas
Pneumo - pertaining to the lungs
Polydipsia - excess thirst
Polyuria - passage of greater than normal amounts of urine
Proximal - nearer or towards center
Renal - relating to the kidneys
Thoracic - Pertaining to the chest cavity
Ventilation - circulate air to oxygenate blood
Ventral - sternum or belly side
Zoonosis - disease of animals that can be transmitted to humans

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